Writing conclusionsConclusions are shorter sections of academic texts which usually serve two functions. The first is to summarise and bring together the main areas covered in the writing, which might
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Discussing findingsThe term ‘discussion’ has a variety of meanings in English. In academic writing, however, it usually refers to two types of activity: a) considering both sides of an issue, or quest
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Reporting resultsThe standard approach to this section of a research article or dissertation is to present and describe the results in a systematic and detailed way. When reporting qualitative results
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Describing methodsIn the Methods section of a dissertation or research article, writers give an account of how they carried out their research. The Methods section should be clear and detailed enough
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Referring to sourcesOne of the distinguishing features of academic writing is that it is informed by what is already known, what work has been done before, and/or what ideas and models have already be
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Introducing workThere are many ways to introduce an academic essay or short paper. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:establish the contex
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One of the most noticeable stylistic aspects of academic communication is the tendency for writers to avoid expressing absolute certainty, where there may be a small degree of uncertainty, and to avoi
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Writing about the pastWriting about the past in English is made difficult by the rather complex tense system. However, the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in ac
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